Robert Rodríguez

The man behind some of the most innovative, creative, and visually inventive action films of the late '90s and early 2000s, director Robert Rodriguez is the epitome of the do-it-yourself attitude and a renaissance man of cinema. Directing, shooting, and editing nearly every one of his films, Rodriguez's energetic and self-immersing approach to filmmaking has resulted in some of the most stylish and exciting action films in modern cinema.

Born June 20, 1968 into a large family that included ten siblings, Rodriguez was never lacking in inspiration due to the antics of his brothers and sisters and became fascinated with cartooning and filmmaking at an early age. Prompted to jump behind the camera after becoming enamored by John_Carpenter's Escape_From_New_York at age 12, the fledgling director's brothers and sisters served as a capable cast and crew, and with his father's Super-8 camera in hand, Rodriguez took his first steps toward auteurhood. Shocked by the cost of developing films, the junior director showed early signs of budget-consciousness when he switched to video due to its versatility and the room it gave him to experiment. Awarded a scholarship to the University of Texas at Austin soon after his graduation from St. Anthony's High School, Rodriguez inked a popular comic-strip entitled -Los Hooligans (inspired by the antics of his siblings) and continued to make films despite being rejected from the institution's film school due to poor academic promise. Undaunted by the rejection, it was Rodriguez who would have the last laugh as his 16 mm film Bedhead won multiple awards and opened many doors. A humorous tale of a girl who gains psychic powers after receiving a bump on the head, the film's unique humor stood out among the usually morose film-festival entries and charmed audiences and judges alike.

Also recognized by Columbia University for his skills as a comic writer and artist during this period, Rodriguez soon began setting his sights on making a feature-length film. Once again intimidated by the high cost of processing film, the resourceful director came up with one of the most unique forms of financing ever conceived by a filmmaker desperate for funding. Serving as a human guinea pig by subjecting himself to experimental drug studies, Rodriguez secured the 7,000 dollars he needed to get El_Mariachi off the ground. With his good friend Carlos_Gallardo serving as the hapless lead and a ragtag crew working round-the-clock in a Mexican border town, shooting was completed in 20 days for intended distribution in the Spanish video market. Bought by Columbia Pictures for distribution in the United States, El_Mariachi was hailed for not only its unique style and energy, but also for the remarkably resourceful circumstances surrounding its creation as well. Brought in at the last minute to direct the made-for-cable feature Roadracers (1994) soon after, and helming "The Misbehavors," arguably the most entertaining segment in the ill-received Four_Rooms the following year, it wasn't long before Hollywood was calling for a sequel to Rodriguez's maiden effort. As much a remake as a sequel, though this time with the noted lead of Antonio_Banderas (whom Rodriguez had worked with on "The Misbehavors"), Desperado displayed further indication of its director's resourcefulness but failed to capture the core energy of the original. Re-teaming with his Four_Rooms cohort Quentin_Tarantino for the super-kinetic, schizophrenic crime/horror extravaganza From_Dusk_Till_Dawn, the director continued to find his groove in the land of bloated budgets, and despite its dark humor and giddy energy, the film was criticized by many for not sticking to the conventions of a single genre. His follow-up, the subversive sci-fi teen romp The_Faculty, was equally compelling, though lost in a sea of post-Scream (1996) self-conscious thrillers.

In subsequent years, Rodriguez would remain only slightly involved with the two straight-to-video From_Dusk_Till_Dawn sequels, and many may have found it ironic that the director would receive his most substantial critical success yet with what was essentially a children's film. A massive box-office hit that offered a family friendly adventure yarn served with a distinctively stylish and surreal twist, Spy_Kids (2001) retained all the elements that had endeared Rodriguez to fans and critics, sans the graphic violence and adult elements that rendered his previous works unsuitable for the small fry. Alarmed by the fact that numerous kids had approached him and expressed their love of his very adult-oriented previous features, Rodriguez set out to craft an energetic adventure that called back to his more lighthearted early efforts. With its deliciously twisted Willy Wonka-inspired villain, bizarre set-pieces, high-tech gadgetry, and positive messages pertaining to the worth of a healthy self-image and the importance of family, Rodriguez won over a whole new generation of fans while simultaneously retaining his already solid and fiercely loyal fan base. Again turning out a stylish and flashy finished product on a remarkably tight budget (Rodriguez edited much of the film in his garage), the established director proved that his talent spanned numerous genres and his appeal was far reaching. Soon beginning work on a sequel to Spy_Kids, Rodriguez also kept busy by beginning production on his longtime dream project, the epic final installment to his Mariachi trology, Once Upon a Time in Mexico.

In the wake of a visit with filmmaker and digital cinema advocate George Lucas, Rodriguez was soon convinced that the future of film lay not in celluliod but in digital video - and from Spy Kids 2 on the progressive-minded filmmaker would eschew tradition to shoot all of his future films on the versitile emerging format. Indeed Rodriguez's subsequent digital films were as visually vibrant and aesthetically pleasing as ever, with Spy Kids 3 using the process to particularly pleasing effect in creating a fantasy world in which young protagonist Juni (Daryl Sabara) must journey into a living videogame to rescue his sister from a sinister foe known as The Toymaker (Sylvester Stallone in a particularly hammy performance).

If Once Upon a Time in Mexo - Rodriguez's epic conclusion to the El_Mariachi trilogy - failed to reach the delirious hights promised by it's undeniably ambitious title in the eyes of some fans, the arrival of the visually striking and masterfully constructed Sin City in early 2005 proved without a doubt that Rodriguez was indeed still one of the most daring mainstream filmmakers in contemporary cinema. Despite the fact that -Sin City author Frank Miller had made no secret of the fact that he had no desire to ever let the legacy of his notorious noir comic blighted by a sub-par film adaptation, Rodriguez secretly shot a scene showcasing his remarkably faithful vision for the film and offered it to Miller as a proposal for a feature length version of Sin City. Immediately recognizing the sincerity and respect with which Rodriguez had handled the source material--going so far as to use the panels of the graphic novel for storyboards--Miller agreed to let the director bring -Sin City to life on the big screen and in turn, Rodriguez resigned from the Director's Guild of America so that he could make Miller the official co-director of the film. When Sin City finally arrived in theaters in April of 2005, few fans of the comic could have realized what a faithful adaptation the film would be, and though it did draw some criticism for its stratospheric level of violence, longtime fans of Miller's comic took to the film in droves and praised it for its unapologetic adherence to his dark vision.

Rodriguez finished off 2005 with another family adventure in the style of Spy_Kids -- although far less successful -- called The Adventures of Shark Boy and Lava Girl. He then spent 2006 teaming up with friend and colleague Quentin Tarantino to work on the over-the-top double-feature project Grindhouse. The film set out to follow in the tradition of the genre it was named after -- bang for your buck drive-in/Times Square exploitationers -- and the final product would include a movie by each director, as grindhouse theaters were known for screening double or triple features. While the grindhouse movies of the '70s made up for the lack of starpower afforded by their shoestring budgets with intense violence, wild action sequences, and shocking premises, Rodruigez and Tarantino reveled in the chance to make a movie just as outlandish and campy, but with big budgets and major stars as well. Released with a maximum of fanfare by the Weinstein Company on Easter weekend, 2007, the film became one of the surprise flops of the spring, despite strong reviews from critics.

Robert Anthony Rodríguez (20 de junio de 1968) es un director de cine estadounidense. También es guionista, músico y productor. Es conocido por realizar rentables producciones, tanto independientes como de estudio, con bajos presupuestos y rodajes sin demoras. Principalmente rueda y produce sus películas en los estudios Troublemaker, de los que es dueño, en Austin, Texas.
Su carrera en Hollywood comenzó gracias a su primera película, titulada El Mariachi, que dirigió a los 24 años de edad.

Nació en 1968 en San Antonio (Texas), en el seno de una familia de inmigrantes mexicanos. Es el tercero de los ocho hijos de la familia. Después de acabar el instituto estudió en la Universidad de Texas.
Rodríguez escribió el guión de su primer largometraje mientras permanecía internado en las instalaciones de unos laboratorios de investigación como paciente de un experimento clínico remunerado. Este dinero sirvió para pagar el rodaje de su película. Planeó recuperar el dinero vendiendo la película en el mercado del vídeo doméstico mexicano.
La película era El Mariachi (1993), que Rodríguez escribió, dirigió, fotografió, montó y grabó el sonido con un presupuesto de 7.000 dólares. Mientras que seguía investigando la forma de vender la película en el mercado del vídeo, Rodriguez fichó con un influyente agente de ICM. Fue entonces cuando Columbia Pictures compró los derechos y firmó un contrato de dirección de dos años con Rodríguez. El Mariachi terminó ganando el ansiado Premio del Público a la Mejor Película Dramática del Festival de Cine de Sundance, y también fue galardonada en los festivales de Berlín, Múnich, Edimburgo, Deauville y Yubari (Japón). El Mariachi se convirtió en la película de menor presupuesto estrenada por un gran estudio y en la primera cinta americana estrenada en español. Rodríguez escribió sobre estas experiencias en Rebel Without a Crew (traducido en España como "Rebelde Sin Pasta").

Más tarde, Rodríguez escribió, produjo, dirigió y montó Desperado (1995), una secuela de El Mariachi, para Columbia Pictures. Esta película dio a conocer a Salma Hayek al público norteamericano, así como a Antonio Banderas en un papel protagonista. Rodríguez también escribió, dirigió y montó The Misbehavers (1995), que también protagonizó Antonio Banderas y que constituye una de las cuatro partes de Four Rooms, de Miramax Films. Más tarde, formó equipo con Quentin Tarantino en la atrevida Abierto hasta el Amanecer, de Dimension Films. Rodríguez dirigió un reparto que incluía al propio Tarantino, que se encargó de escribir el guión. El siguiente proyecto como realizador de Rodríguez fue The Faculty (1998), de Dimension Films, protagonizada por Josh Hartnett, Elijah Wood y Jordana Brewster.
En 2001, Robert Rodríguez pudo hacer realidad uno de los sueños de su vida y creó una película de aventuras para toda la familia. Spy Kids fue aclamada por la crítica y obtuvo un enorme éxito de taquilla, con unos ingresos que superaron los 100 millones de dólares sólo en Estados Unidos. Después le siguió Spy Kids 2, que se hizo valedora de excelentes críticas y Spy Kids 3-D: Game Over', que se estrenó en Estados Unidos el 25 de julio de 2003.
La tercera entrega de la trilogía El Mariachi, Érase una vez en México rodada, montada y producida por él mismo, que se estrenó en Estados Unidos el 12 de septiembre de 2003. Además, participó como guionista.

Blaise Pascal

Blaise Pascal (June 19, 1623 – August 19, 1662), was a French mathematician, physicist, inventor, writer and Catholic philosopher. He was a child prodigy who was educated by his father, a Tax Collector in Rouen. Pascal's earliest work was in the natural and applied sciences where he made important contributions to the study of fluids, and clarified the concepts of pressure and vacuum by generalizing the work of Evangelista Torricelli. Pascal also wrote in defense of the scientific method.
In 1642, while still a teenager, he started some pioneering work on calculating machines, and after three years of effort and 50 prototypes he invented the mechanical calculator. He built twenty of these machines (called the Pascaline) in the following ten years. Pascal was a mathematician of the first order. He helped create two major new areas of research. He wrote a significant treatise on the subject of projective geometry at the age of sixteen, and later corresponded with Pierre de Fermat on probability theory, strongly influencing the development of modern economics and social science. Following Galileo and Torricelli, in 1646 he refuted Aristotle's followers who insisted that nature abhors a vacuum. His results caused many disputes before being accepted.
In 1646, he and his sister Jacqueline identified with the religious movement within Catholicism known by its detractors as Jansenism. His father died in 1651. Following a mystical experience in late 1654, he had his "second conversion", abandoned his scientific work, and devoted himself to philosophy and theology. His two most famous works date from this period: the Lettres provinciales and the Pensées, the former set in the conflict between Jansenists and Jesuits. In this year, he also wrote an important treatise on the arithmetical triangle. Between 1658 and 1659 he wrote on the cycloid and its use in calculating the volume of solids.
Pascal had poor health especially after his eighteenth year and his death came just two months after his 39th birthday.

Blaise Pascal (Clermont-Ferrand, Auvernia, Francia, 19 de junio de 1623 - París, 19 de agosto de 1662) fue un matemático, físico, filósofo y teólogo francés, considerado el padre de las computadoras junto con Charles Babbage. Fue un niño prodigio, educado por su padre, un juez local.
Sus primeros trabajos abarcan las ciencias naturales y aplicadas, donde realizó importantes contribuciones para la invención y construcción de calculadoras mecánicas, estudios de la teoría matemática de probabilidad, investigaciones sobre los fluidos y la aclaración de conceptos tales como la presión y el vacío, generalizando la obra de Evangelista Torricelli. También escribió en defensa del método científico.
Pascal fue un matemático de primer orden. Ayudó a crear dos grandes áreas de investigación, escribió importantes tratados sobre geometría proyectiva a los dieciséis años, y más tarde cruzó correspondencia con Pierre de Fermat sobre teoría de la probabilidad, influenciando fuertemente el desarrollo de las modernas ciencias económicas y sociales. Siguiendo con el trabajo de Galileo y de Torricelli, en 1646 refutó las teorías aristotélicas que insistían en que la naturaleza aborrece el vacío, y sus resultados causaron grandes discusiones antes de ser generalmente aceptados.
En 1646 su familia se convirtió al jansenismo, y su padre murió en 1651. Sin embargo, tras una profunda experiencia religiosa en el año 1654, Pascal sufrió una "segunda conversión". Abandonó las matemáticas y la física para dedicarse a la filosofía y a la teología, publicando en este periodo sus dos obras más conocidas: Las Lettres provinciales (Cartas provinciales) y Pensées (Pensamientos). Ese año también escribió un importante tratado sobre el triángulo aritmético. Entre 1658 y 1659 escribió sobre la cicloide y su uso en el cálculo del volumen de los sólidos.
Pascal tuvo una salud muy endeble a lo largo de toda su vida, y su muerte acaeció dos meses después de haber cumplido 39 años.

Paul McCartney

Sir James Paul McCartney, MBE (born 18 June 1942) is an English musician, singer-songwriter and composer. Formerly of The Beatles (1960–1970) and Wings (1971–1981), McCartney is the most commercially successful songwriter in the history of popular music, according to Guinness World Records.
McCartney gained worldwide fame as a member of The Beatles, alongside John Lennon, George Harrison, and Ringo Starr. McCartney and Lennon formed one of the most influential and successful songwriting partnerships and wrote some of the most popular songs in the history of rock music. After leaving The Beatles, McCartney launched a successful solo career and formed the band Wings with his first wife, Linda Eastman, and singer-songwriter Denny Laine. McCartney is listed in Guinness World Records as the "most successful musician and composer in popular music history", with 60 gold discs and sales of 100 million singles in the UK.

BBC News Online readers named McCartney the "greatest composer of the millennium", and BBC News cites his Beatles song "Yesterday" as the most covered song in the history of recorded music—by over 2,200 artists—and since its 1965 release, has been played more than 7,000,000 times on American television and radio according to the BBC. Wings' 1977 single "Mull of Kintyre" became the first single to sell more than two million copies in the UK, and remains the UK's top selling non-charity single. Based on the 93 weeks his compositions have spent at the top spot of the UK chart, and 24 number one singles to his credit, McCartney is the most successful songwriter in UK singles chart history. As a performer or songwriter, McCartney was responsible for 32 number one singles on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart, and has sold 15.5 million RIAA certified albums in the US alone.
McCartney has composed film scores, classical and electronic music, released a large catalogue of songs as a solo artist, and has taken part in projects to help international charities. He is an advocate for animal rights, for vegetarianism, and for music education; he is active in campaigns against landmines, seal hunting, and Third World debt. He is a keen football fan, supporting both Everton and Liverpool football clubs. His company MPL Communications owns the copyrights to more than 3,000 songs, including all of the songs written by Buddy Holly, along with the publishing rights to such musicals as Guys and Dolls, A Chorus Line, and Grease.

Sir James Paul McCartney, MBE (Liverpool, Inglaterra, 18 de junio de 1942) es un músico multi instrumentista, empresario, cantante, compositor, productor musical y activista pro-derechos de los animales.
Obtuvo un reconocimiento mundial como miembro del grupo británico The Beatles, junto a George Harrison, John Lennon y Ringo Starr. Junto a su amigo John Lennon formó una de las parejas de compositores más influyentes de la música contemporánea, escribiendo conjuntamente un extenso catálogo de temas mundialmente conocidos. Tras abandonar el grupo, McCartney empezó una exitosa carrera en solitario y formó el grupo Wings con su mujer, Linda McCartney y el músico Denny Laine.
McCartney ha trabajado también como compositor de música electrónica, clásica, temas para películas y también programas de televisión. Ha lanzado, además, un gran catálogo de exitosas canciones como artista en solitario, y ha formado parte de muchos proyectos musicales para organizaciones benéficas.

McCartney figura en el Libro Guinness de récords mundiales como el músico y compositor de mayor éxito comercial de la música contemporánea, con sesenta discos de oro y ventas en torno a los 100 millones de copias. Su canción "Yesterday"(Lennon/McCartney) es el tema más versionado en la historia, con cerca de 3.700 versiones, y ha sido radiodifundido más de 7 millones de veces en las televisiones y radios americanas. El sencillo de Wings "Mull of Kintyre" supuso el primer sencillo en vender más de dos millones de copias en el Reino Unido, y sigue siendo el sencillo de carácter no benéfico con más ventas.
La compañía de McCartney, MPL Communications, es la propietaria de los derechos de autor de más de tres mil canciones, incluyendo el catálogo musical de Buddy Holly. Además de música, McCartney también ha desarrollado una carrera pictórica y una fuerte tarea como activista a favor de los derechos de los animales, del vegetarianismo y de la condonación de la deuda al Tercer Mundo, en contra las minas antipersona y de la caza de focas, y es impulsor de numerosas iniciativas benéficas en favor de la educación musical como el instituto LIPA.
Fue nombrado, junto a los otros Beatles, Miembro del Imperio Británico el 16 de octubre de 1965 por Elizabeth II y Caballero (Sir) el 11 de marzo de 1997. En su escudo de armas, esta representado su profesión musical y sus compañeros Beatles.

The Statue of Liberty arrives in New York City harbour

On this day in 1885 the Statue of Liberty, a gift of friendship from the people of France to the people of the United States, arrives in New York City's harbour on board the French frigate Isere.  Officially known as "Liberty Enlightening the World," the statue was proposed by French historian Edouard Laboulaye to commemorate the Franco-American alliance during the American Revolution and also to celebrate the centennial of the American Declaration of Independence. Designed by French sculptor Frederic Auguste Bartholdi, the 151-foot statue was the form of a woman with an uplifted arm holding a torch.

In February 1877, Congress approved the use of a site on New York Bedloe's Island (later renamed Liberty Island), which was suggested by Bartholdi. In May 1884, the statue was completed in France, and three months later the Americans laid the cornerstone for its pedestal in New York. On 19 June 1885, the dismantled Statue of Liberty arrived in the New World, enclosed in more than 200 packing cases. Its copper sheets were reassembled, and the last rivet of the monument was fitted on 28 October 1886, during a dedication presided over by US President Grover Cleveland.

On the interior of the pedestal was inscribed "The New Colossus," a famous sonnet by American poet Emma Lazarus that welcomed immigrants to the United States with the declaration:

"Give me your tired, your poor
Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free
The wretched refuse of your teeming shore
Send these, the homeless, tempest-tossed to me.
I lift my lamp beside the golden door!"

In 1892, Ellis Island, adjacent to Bedloe's Island, opened as the chief entry station for immigrants to the United States, and for the next 62 years more than 12 million immigrants were welcomed into New York harbour by the sight of "Lady Liberty." In 1924, the Statue of Liberty was made a National Monument.

En este día de 1885, la Estatua de la Libertad, regalo de amistad del pueblo de Francia al pueblo de los Estados Unidos, llegó al puerto de Nueva York a bordo de la fragata francesa Isère. Oficialmente conocida como "La libertad iluminando al mundo", la estatua fue propuesta por el francés Edouard Laboulaye historiador para conmemorar la alianza franco-americana durante la Revolución Americana y también para celebrar el centenario de la Declaración de Independencia americana. Diseñado por el escultor francés Frederic Auguste Bartholdi, la estatua de 151 pies es la forma de una mujer con un brazo en alto sosteniendo una antorcha.
En febrero de 1877, el Congreso aprobó su colocación en la isla de Nueva York Bedloe (más tarde llamado Isla de la Libertad), sugerida por Bartholdi. En mayo de 1884, la estatua fue terminada en Francia, y tres meses más tarde, los estadounidenses pusieron la primera piedra de su pedestal en Nueva York. El 19 de junio de 1885, la Estatua de la Libertad llegó desmantelado al Nuevo Mundo, en más de 200 cajas de embalaje. Sus láminas de cobre fueron montada, y el último remache del monumento fue instalado el 28 de octubre de 1886, durante una acto presidido por el presidente Grover Cleveland.
En el interior del pedestal fue inscrito "El Nuevo Coloso", un famoso soneto de Emma Lazarus poeta estadounidense que dio la bienvenida a los inmigrantes a los Estados Unidos con la declaración:

                    "Dame tus cansadas, tus pobres,

tus hacinadas multitudes anhelantes de respirar en libertad,

el desdichado desecho de tu rebosante playa,

envía a estos, los desamparados que botó la ola, a mí

¡Yo alzo mi lámpara detrás de la puerta dorada!"

En 1892, Ellis Island, junto a la isla de Bedloe, abrió sus puertas como la estación de entrada principal para los inmigrantes a los Estados Unidos, y en los siguientes 62 años más de 12 millones de inmigrantes fueron recibidos en el puerto de Nueva York por la visión de "Lady Liberty". En 1924, la Estatua de la Libertad fue declarada monumento nacional.

Valentina Tereshkova becomes the first woman in space

Valentina Vladimirovna Tereshkova (Russian: Валенти́на Влади́мировна Терешко́ва; Belarusian: Валянціна Уладзіміраўна Церашко́ва) (born March 6, 1937) is a retired Soviet cosmonaut, and was the first woman in space. She was selected out of more than four hundred applicants, and then out of five finalists, to pilot Vostok 6 on the 16 June, 1963, becoming both the first woman and the first civilian to fly in space, as she was only honorarily inducted into the USSR's Air Force as a condition on joining the Cosmonaut Corps. During her three-day mission, she performed various tests on herself to collect data on the female body's reaction to spaceflight.
Before being recruited as a cosmonaut, Tereshkova was a textile-factory assembly worker and an amateur parachutist. After the dissolution of the first group of female cosmonauts in 1969, she became a prominent member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, holding various political offices. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, she retired from politics, but remains revered as a hero in post-Soviet Russia.

After the flight of Yuri Gagarin in 1961, Sergey Korolyov, the chief Soviet rocket engineer, came up with the idea of putting a woman in space. On February 16, 1962, Valentina Tereshkova was selected to join the female cosmonaut corps. Out of more than four hundred applicants, five were selected: Tatyana Kuznetsova, Irina Solovyova, Zhanna Yorkina, Valentina Ponomaryova, and Tereshkova. Qualifications included that they be parachutists under 30 years of age, under 170 cm (5 feet 7 inches) tall, and under 70 kg (154 lbs.) in weight.

Tereshkova was considered a particularly worthy candidate, partly due to her "proletarian" background, and because her father, tank leader sergeant Vladimir Tereshkov, was a war hero. He lost his life in the Finnish Winter War during World War II in the Lemetti area in Finnish Karelia. Tereshkova was two years old at the time of her father's death. After her mission she was asked how the Soviet Union should thank her for her service to the country. Tereshkova asked that the government search for, and publish, the location where her father was killed in action. This was done, and a monument now stands at the site in Lemetti—now on the Russian side of the border. Tereshkova has since visited Finland several times.
Training included weightless flights, isolation tests, centrifuge tests, rocket theory, spacecraft engineering, 120 parachute jumps and pilot training in MiG-15UTI jet fighters. The group spent several months in intensive training, concluding with examinations in November 1962, after which four remaining candidates were commissioned Junior Lieutenants in the Soviet Air Force. Tereshkova, Solovyova and Ponomaryova were the leading candidates, and a joint mission profile was developed that would see two women launched into space, on solo Vostok flights on consecutive days in March or April 1963.
Originally it was intended that Tereshkova would launch first in Vostok 5 while Ponomaryova would follow her into orbit in Vostok 6. However, this flight plan was altered in March 1963. Vostok 5 would now carry a male cosmonaut Valery Bykovsky flying the joint mission with a woman aboard Vostok 6 in June 1963. The State Space Commission nominated Tereshkova to pilot Vostok 6 at their meeting on May 21 and this was confirmed by Nikita Khrushchev himself. At the time of her selection, Tereshkova was ten years younger than the youngest Mercury Seven astronaut, Gordon Cooper.

After watching the successful launch of Vostok 5 on June 14, Tereshkova began final preparations for her own flight. She was 26 at the time. On the morning of 16 June 1963, Tereshkova and her back-up Solovyova were both dressed in spacesuits and taken to the launch pad by bus. After completing her communication and life support checks, she was sealed inside the Vostok. After a flawless two-hour countdown, Vostok 6 launched faultlessly, and Tereshkova became the first woman to fly into space. Her call sign in this flight was Chaika (English: Seagull; Russian: Ча́йка), later commemorated as the name of an asteroid, 1671 Chaika.
Although Tereshkova experienced nausea and physical discomfort for much of the flight, she orbited the earth 48 times and spent almost three days in space. With a single flight, she logged more flight time than the combined times of all American astronauts who had flown before that date. Tereshkova also maintained a flight log and took photographs of the horizon, which were later used to identify aerosol layers within the atmosphere.
Vostok 6 was the final Vostok flight and was launched two days after Vostok 5 which carried Valery Bykovsky into a similar orbit for five days, landing three hours after Tereshkova. The two vessels approached each other within 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) at one point, and Tereshkova communicated with Bykovsky and with Khrushchev by radio.
Even though there were plans for further flights by women, it took 19 years until the second woman, Svetlana Savitskaya, flew into space. None of the other four in Tereshkova's early group ever flew, and in October 1969 the pioneering female cosmonaut group was dissolved.

Valentina Vladímirovna Tereshkova (en ruso Валенти́на Влади́мировна Терешко́ва, nacida el 6 de marzo de 1937), cosmonauta soviética, fue la primera mujer de la historia en viajar al espacio, a bordo del Vostok 6 en 1963.
Nació en Máslennikovo, un pequeño pueblo del óblast de Yaroslavl, en la actual Rusia. Tras abandonar la escuela, trabajó en una fábrica de neumáticos y más tarde estudió ingeniería. También practicó paracaidismo. En 1962 fue seleccionada para su ingreso en el cuerpo femenino de cosmonautas. De entre más de cuatrocientas candidatas, cinco fueron seleccionadas: Tatiana Kuznetsova, Irina Soloviova, Zhanna Yérkina, Valentina Ponomariova y Tereshkova.
El 16 de junio de 1963, a la edad de 26 años y a bordo del Vostok 6, se convirtió en la primera mujer en viajar al espacio. Su nombre en clave durante la misión fue Chaika (gaviota en castellano, Чайка en ruso). Serguéi Koroliov estaba descontento con el comportamiento de Tereshkova en órbita y no se le permitió tomar el control manual de la nave, tal y como estaba planeado. Aunque estaban previstos más vuelos en los que participaran mujeres, pasaron 19 años hasta que otra mujer, Svetlana Savítskaya, viajara al espacio. Ninguna de las otras cuatro cosmonautas del grupo de Tereshkova viajó al espacio.

Tras la misión espacial estudió en la Academia de la Fuerza Aérea de Zhukovski, y se graduó como ingeniera espacial en 1969. Ese mismo año, el grupo de cosmonautas femenino fue disuelto. En 1977 recibió el doctorado en ingeniería. Debido a su prominencia desempeñó diversos cargos políticos: de 1966 a 1974 fue miembro del Soviet Supremo, de 1974 a 1989 formó parte del Presidium del Soviet Supremo, y de 1969 a 1991 perteneció al Comité Central del Partido Comunista. En 1997 se retiró de la fuerza aérea y del cuerpo de cosmonautas.
El 3 de noviembre de 1963 contrajo matrimonio con el cosmonauta Andrián Nikoláyev (1929-2004) y un año más tarde dio a luz a su hija Elena (1964), quien es ahora doctora en medicina. Valentina se divorció de su primer marido en 1982. Su segundo marido, el Dr. Shapóshnikov, murió en 1999.

Minamoto Yoshitsune

Minamoto no Yoshitsune (源 義経, 1159 – June 15, 1189) was a general of the Minamoto clan of Japan in the late Heian and early Kamakura period. Yoshitsune was the ninth son of Minamoto no Yoshitomo. Yoshitsune's older brother Minamoto no Yoritomo (the third son of Yoshitomo) founded the Kamakura shogunate. Yoshitsune's name in childhood was Ushiwakamaru (牛若丸). He is probably the most popular warrior of his era.

Yoshitsune was born during the Heiji Rebellion of 1159 in which his father and oldest two brothers were killed. His life was spared and he was put under the care of Kurama Temple (鞍馬寺), nestled in the Hiei Mountains near the capital of Kyoto, while Yoritomo was banished to Izu Province. Eventually, Yoshitsune was put under the protection of Fujiwara no Hidehira, head of the powerful regional Northern Fujiwara clan in Hiraizumi, Mutsu Province.

A skillful swordsman, he defeated the legendary warrior monk Benkei in a duel. From then on, Benkei became Yoshitsune's right-hand man, eventually dying with him at the Siege of Koromogawa.

In 1180, Yoshitsune heard that Yoritomo, now head of the Minamoto clan, had raised an army at the request of Prince Mochihito to fight against the Taira clan (also known as the Heike) which had usurped the power of the emperor. Yoshitsune shortly thereafter joined Yoritomo, along with Minamoto no Noriyori, all brothers who had never before met, in the last of three conflicts between the rival Minamoto and Taira samurai clans, known as the Genpei War.
Yoshitsune defeated and killed his rival cousin Minamoto no Yoshinaka at the Battle of Awazu in Ōmi Province in the first month of 1184 and in the next month defeated the Taira at the Battle of Ichi-no-Tani in present day Kobe. In 1185, Yoshitsune defeated the Taira again at the Battle of Yashima in Shikoku and destroyed them at the Battle of Dan-no-ura in present day Yamaguchi Prefecture.
After the Genpei War, Yoshitsune joined the cloistered Emperor Go-Shirakawa against his brother Yoritomo. Fleeing to the temporary protection of Fujiwara no Hidehira in Mutsu again, Yoshitsune was betrayed, defeated at the Battle of Koromo River, and forced to commit seppuku along with his wife and daughter, by Hidehira's son Fujiwara no Yasuhira. Yoshitsune is enshrined in the Shinto shrine Shirahata Jinja in Fujisawa.

Yoshitsune has long been a popular figure in Japanese literature and culture due to his appearance as the main character in the third section of the Japanese literary classic Heike Monogatari (Tale of the Heike). The Japanese term for "sympathy for a tragic hero", Hōgan-biiki (判官贔屓 lit. Hōgan favor), comes from Yoshitsune's title Hōgan, which he received from the Imperial Court.

In addition to The Tale of the Heike and Chronicle of Yoshitsune (Gikeiki), which relates events of Yoshitsune's life after the defeat of the Heike, a great many other works of literature and drama feature him, and together form the sekai ("world") of Yoshitsune, a concept akin to the Western notion of the literary cycle.


Minamoto no Yoshitsune (源 義経) (1159 - 15 de junio de 1189) fue un general del clan Minamoto de Japón que vivió en los últimos años del período Heian y a comienzos del período Kamakura. Es uno de los samurái más destacados en la historia japonesa, ya que es conocido por ser una de las piezas claves dentro del clan Minamoto en recuperar los fracasos militares que tuvo dicho clan en los tres años anteriores y en derrotar y aniquilar en tan sólo un año al hasta entonces dominante clan Taira, durante las Guerras Genpei en 1185.
Con esta victoria, los Minamoto consolidan su poder como clan dominante en Japón y un hermano mayor de Yoshitsune, Minamoto no Yoritomo, fundó en ese mismo año el shogunato Kamakura, quien da inicio al primer shogunato en el país y marcaría la transición del poder de las clases cortesanas a las clases guerreras y se convertiría en un poder alterno que rivalizaría al Emperador de Japón, relegado como dirigente ceremonial y religioso durante los próximos 700 años.
Sin embargo, su propio hermano Yoritomo es quien iría en contra de Yoshitsune durante los próximos cuatro años y termina su vida de manera trágica a la edad de 30 años. La historia de Yoshitsune está muy enmarcada entre hechos históricos y algunos más asociados con el folklore japonés, su vida ha sido reseñada desde obras clásicas y tradicionales de la época como el Heike Monogatari hasta videojuegos, películas y series de manga y anime más recientes.

En 1180 tras la abdicación forzada del Emperador Takakura, asciende al trono el Emperador Antoku con un año de edad, quien por parte de su madre pertenecía al clan Taira, y era nieto de Kiyomori. El Príncipe Mochihito, hijo del enclaustrado Emperador Go-Shirakawa reclamó el título imperial y convocó a un llamado nacional para conformar un ejército que lucharía contra el clan Taira, y de ahí entra en participación el clan Minamoto; poco después daría inicio a las Guerras Genpei el 6 de mayo de ese mismo año, sin embargo el Príncipe Mochihito muere en la Primera Batalla de Uji el 23 de junio de ese año, convirtiendo a partir de ese instante en una lucha encarnizada entre dos clanes por el poder del país.
La situación del clan Minamoto estaba en juego debido a que no lograron ganar batalla alguna durante la guerra hasta la batalla de Kurikara, el 2 de junio de 1183, tres años después de comenzado el conflicto y del cual daría una ventaja considerable contra el clan Taira; también con la muerte de Taira no Kiyomori en 1181 provocó una acefalía en el liderazgo de los Taira, ya que el poder estaba ahora repartido entre sus hijos, pero que posteriormente Taira no Munemori sería el nuevo sucesor.

Durante las Guerras Genpei, Yoshitsune conoce a Saitō Musashibō Benkei, un hábil y fuerte sōhei (monje budista guerrero) de Kioto y cuyo nombre es un tópico importante dentro del folklore japonés. Cuenta la tradición que Benkei desafiaba a duelo a los que portaban espada y tomaba las espadas de los que vencía, llegando a coleccionar 999 espadas. En su milésimo duelo, Yoshitsune venció a Benkei, a cambio éste se convertiría en vasallo y buen amigo de Yoshitsune y pelearía a su lado durante el resto de su vida.

Después de Ichi-no-Tani, Yoshitsune y Noriyori pensaron en perseguir a los Taira en Yashima, la base principal del clan en la isla de Shikoku; pero Yoritomo ordenó a sus hermanos que no continuaran con la ofensiva y que regresaran a Kioto con las cabezas de sus oponentes como trofeos de batalla. Así, Yoshitsune permaneció seis meses en Kioto, de finales de 1184 a comienzos de 1185. Noriyori fue enviado en octubre de 1184 a la isla occidental de Kyushu para encabezar varias batallas contra los Taira en esa región.

Durante este período, Yoshitsune se convirtió en delegado principal de Yoritomo y asumió el papel de mantener el orden en los territorios controlados por el clan Minamoto, emitiendo edictos para el cese de las hostilidades en dichas regiones. También era encargado de aprobar o desaprobar cualquier proyecto o impuesto establecido sin el consentimiento del clan.
Sin embargo, durante esta etapa se comenzó a deteriorar la relación con su hermano Yoritomo. Una de las razones fue la negativa de Yoritomo a conceder a Yoshitsune los títulos nobiliarios que le había otorgado a Noriyori por los servicios prestados; la razón de fondo era el intento de mantener a Yoshitsune fuera de la corte.

Después de las Guerras Genpei, Yoshitsune se alió con el enclaustrado Emperador Go-Shirakawa para rebelarse contra su hermano Yoritomo. Abandonando la protección de Fujiwara no Hidehira, fue traicionado y asesinado en 1189 por Fujiwara no Yasuhira, hijo de Hidehira.

En el templo shinto Shirahata Jinja en Fujisawa se honra la memoria de Yoshitsune.

Congress adopts the Stars and Stripes

During the American Revolution, the Second Continental Congress adopts a resolution stating that "the flag of the United States be thirteen alternate stripes red and white" and that "the Union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a new Constellation." The national flag, which became known as the "Stars and Stripes," was based on the "Grand Union" flag, a banner carried by the Continental Army in 1776 that also consisted of 13 red and white stripes.

According to legend, Philadelphian seamstress Betsy Ross designed the new canton for the Stars and Stripes, which consisted of a circle of 13 stars and a blue background, at the request of General George Washington. Historians have been unable to conclusively prove or disprove this legend.

With the entrance of new states into the United States after independence, new stripes and stars were added to represent new additions to the Union. In 1818, however, Congress enacted a law stipulating that the 13 original stripes be restored to honour the original colonies and that only stars be added to represent new states. The current flag with 50 stars is the longest rendition in use, with Hawaii being the last state to gain statehood in 1959.

On 14 June 1877, the first Flag Day observance was held on the 100th anniversary of the adoption of the Stars and Stripes. As instructed by Congress, the US flag was flown from all public buildings across the country. In the years after the first Flag Day, several states continued to observe the anniversary, and in 1949 Congress officially designated 14 June as Flag Day, a national day of observance.

El 14 de junio de 1777 el Comité de Marina del Congreso Continental aprobó una resolución sobre la bandera por la que se establecía que tendría trece barras alternando rojas y blancas, y en un cuadro azul en el cantón trece estrellas blancas formando una constelación; aunque no se precisaba, en los primeros diseños las estrellas se colocaron en círculo. Esta resolución se refería a una bandera naval, todavía no a una bandera nacional, pero posteriormente su uso se fue extendiendo.

En 1795 el número de estrellas se incrementó de 13 a 15 como consecuencia de la admisión de Vermont y Kentucky como estados de la Unión. Las 15 estrellas se mantuvieron pese a la admisión de nuevos estados hasta 1818 en que aprobó por ley una bandera de 20 estrellas con la precisión de que se añadiría una más por cada nuevo estado que ingresara en la Unión, y que cada nuevo diseño entraría en vigor siempre el 4 de julio siguiente a la admisión. La bandera ha ido incrementando el número de estrellas hasta llegar a las 50 actuales en 1960 tras la admisión de Hawái.

ColoresSegún el libro Our flag (Nuestra bandera, en español), de la Cámara de Representantes de Estados Unidos, "los colores rojo, blanco y azul no tenían significado para las Barras y Estrellas cuando fue adoptada en 1777". Sin embargo, sobre los colores del Sello de los Estados Unidos, adoptado en 1782, dice que "el blanco simboliza su color de piel e inocencia, el rojo sangre y valor, y el azul el cielo, perseverancia y justicia".